Chapter 3:
Conceptualizations in
Communication Research
 | A Brief Quiz on Materials on Chapter 3 |
| Sources of Theories |
| Outline
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Concepts
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| I. Developing Theoretic Conceptualizations in Communication A. Is Communication "Scientific" Enough to Have Theories? |
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1. Prerequisites for Science |
competing views of science:
a label for our attempts to find out how the universe works by means of careful
observation rather than armchair speculation; the study of natural phenomena by the
methods of the physical and biological sciences; organized and systematic knowledge; use
of particular methods to develop knowledge (across subject fields). science (preferred view): a way of testing statements by systematic application of the scientific method |
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2. Is Communication a Science? --the study of communication is a science if one chooses to use the scientific method to inquire into it. --the practice of communication remains an art to be performed and refined. B. Anatomy of Theories |
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1. Definition of a Theory 2. Components of Theory |
theory: a body of interrelated principles that explain or predict |
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a. an abstract calculus |
abstract calculus: the logical structure of relationships |
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b. theoretic constructs |
constructs:
generalizations about observables according to some common property --hypothetical constructs or concepts: constructs for which we cannot make observations directly. |
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c. rules of correspond- ence |
rules of correspondence: assessment of how well the theory's constructs and abstract calculus can be applied to actual experience. |
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3. Requirements of Theory a. the requirement of falsification |
requirement of falsification: any actual theory must deal with statements that can be falsified by data and information if they are untrue |
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b. the requirement of tentativeness |
tentativeness: recognition
that a theory's answers are provisional functions of theory: description: the lowest level of theorizing, in which behavior is characterized into different forms explanation: taking an event and treating it as an instance of a larger system of things prediction: descriptions of what can be expected in the future control: the power to direct things |
| C. Functions of Theory | --non-research methods: method of tenacity: claiming to know something because one always has known it method of authority: accepting a claim because authority figures have accepted it a priori: claiming knowledge before having any experience with it method of trial and error: claiming knowledge by making repeated attempts to eliminate unacceptable answers --research methods of knowing: developing claims from reviews of literature meta-analysis: a method combining the quantitative results from many studies to reveal the overall sizes of effects that exist among variables the scientific method: at minimum, collecting data and establishing a functional relationship among these data --four steps: 1. observation of facts 2. working hypothesis or theoretical solution development 3. test of expectations against information and data 4. establishing a conclusion or functional relationship |
| D.
Applications of Theory 1. Data First vs. Theory First Inquiry |
data first inquiry:
sometimes called the "inductive approach" to research, this method involves
researchers gathering information and then developing theoretic explanations --advantages: one does not enter research with preconceptions; one may be free to follow unexpected directions; one stays close to data and avoids tendencies toward reification (the fallacy of thinking that abstract concepts are concrete things) --disadvantages: explanations limited to phenomena that can be observed with current measurement instruments; does not test alternative theoretical explanations, but develops suggestions for theory; promoted inefficient research since key variables are not identified early theory first inquiry: sometimes called the "deductive approach" to research, this method involves researchers developing theoretic thinking and then gathering data to apply and test it --advantages: theories may develop from any source and are not limited to phenomena that can be observed with current measuring instruments; one may be free to take advantage of serendipity since unexpected findings are readily identified; promotes efficient research since key variables of interest are identified early --disadvantages: researchers may force theoretic explanations on information even if it is inappropriate to do so; theories may become articles of faith to their followers, even after the theories have outlived their usefulness; theories are difficult to construct and require exhaustive thinking beyond the energies of most scholars |
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normative and prescriptive
theories: theories whose principles involve defining the qualities of meaningfulness
or desirability for phenomena --normative science: a discipline that systematically studies humanity's attempts to determine what is correct, valuable, good, or beautiful ethical and rhetorical theories: principles that describe good and effective communication respectively related terms: model: a statement of a theory that not only states the relationships, but displays them law: a verbal statement, supported by such ample evidence as not to be open to doubt unless much further evidence is obtained, of the way events of a certain class consistently and uniformly occur rule: a theory that explains a pattern of effects by referring to human intentions, reasons, or goals |
| II. Developing Definitions for Concepts |
definitions: statements asserting that one term may be substituted for another |
| A. Using
Conceptual Definitions |
conceptual (or constitutive) definition: relies on other constructs and concepts to describe a term |
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daily definitions:
statements that are generally adopted by members of a society poetic definitions: statements that involve figurative interpretations of objects scholarly definitions: highly specific statements that have technical meanings for a group of scholars |
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circular definitions flawed
because they commit the fallacy of begging the question begging the question: flawed reasoning in which the conclusion of an argument is used as a premise for the argument |
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| B.
Using Operational Definitions 1. An Attempt at Precision of Definition 2. Forms of Operational Definitions |
operational definition: describes what is observed by specifying what researchers must do to make observations |
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a. manipulated independent variables |
manipulated independent variables: sometimes called stimulus variables because researchers introduce and control them in experiments |
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b. measured/ assigned variables
3. Standards for |
measured/assigned variables:
variables not introduced or controlled by the researcher, but carefully observed and/or
measured direct classification: operationally defining concepts by simple identification or classification of observable characteristicsdirect classification: operationally defining concepts by simple identification or classification of observable characteristics
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1. empirically based and definite 2. logically consistent |
empirical: observable |
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intersubjectivity: the degree to which different researchers with different beliefs draw essentially the same interpretations of the meaning of observations |